Minerals

Minerals

Inorganic elemental atoms that are essential micronutrients, not changed by digestion or metabolism

There are two types of minerals
1. Major Minerals
2. Trace Minerals

Major Minerals

_Calcium (Ca)

Most abundant mineral in animal tissues 99% Ca in skeleton Present in Blood & other tissues

Functions -

• Bone structure
• Nerve function
• Blood clotting
• Muscle contraction
• Cellular metabolism
• structural unit of bones and teeth
• contraction and relaxation of muscles
• stabilizes nervous tissue ( low calcium --- irritable nerves --- tetany, high calcium --- depresses the nervous irritability )
• required for blood clotting
• activates various enzymes (glycogen phosphorylase kinase, salivary and pancreatic amylase)

Source –

• Milk and dairy products (High amounts, High bioavailability (fortified with vitamin D))
• Green leafy vegetables (Poor absorption)
• Fish, meat with bones
• Calcium supplements: limestone, oyster shell

Deficiency –

• Rickets in growing animals
• Osteomalacia (osteoporosis) in adult animals
• Milk fever (parturient paresis) in lactating animals

_Phosphorus

is the second most abundant mineral in the body (22% of total mineral content; 80% is structural in bone and teeth)

Functions –

• Similar to calcium
• Vitally important in energy metabolism
• ATP
• sugar phosphates Phosphoproteins

Source –

• phosphoproteins
• nucleoproteins
• nucleolipids
• glycerophosphates
• inorganic phosphates (Na and Ca)

Deficiency –

• Rickets or osteomalacia
• Pica (depraved appetite) – chewing of wood, bones
• Low fertility and poor milk production or growth?

Magnesium

Functions –

• Associated with Ca and P 70 % of Mg in skeleton Enzyme activation (e.g., pyruvate dehydrogenase)

Source –

• Green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains, are good sources
• https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/

Deficiency –

• Hypomagnesemic tetany (grass tetany) early lactating cows on grass poor nervous and muscular control

Potassium

Functions –

• Regulation of osmotic and acid-base balance Major cation of intracellular fluid nerve and muscle excitability Cofactor for several reactions in carbohydrate metabolism
• Absorption in small intestine & colon
• Blood potassium regulated by: Kidneys Aldosterone increases excretion
• Electrolyte
• Maintains fluid balance
• Muscle function
• Nerve function
• Energy metabolism

Source –

• fruits and vegetables Leafy greens, beans, nuts, dairy foods, and starchy vegetables like winter squash are rich sources.
• https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/
• https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/potassium/

Deficiency –

• Diarrhea & vomiting
• Diuretics
• Hypokalemia

Trace Minerals

Iron

Functions –

• Hemoglobin and myoglobin
  1. Contain four and two iron molecules, respectively ✓ 50% of iron in body is hemoglobin, 20% is myoglobin
  2. Functions in oxygen transport ✓ Only ferrous (+2) iron can reversibly bind oxygen
• Redox processes
  1. Fe2+ , Fe3+
  2. Electron transfer chainFunctions in oxygen transport
• Component of many enzymes
• Immune function
• Brain function
  1. Iron deficiency/toxicity thought to slow mental development in humans

Source –

• Plants
  1. Leafy, green materials (especially legumes)
  2. Seed coats
• Animal sources
  1. Meat and bone meal, meat meal, blood cells
  2. Milk is a poor source of iron

Deficiency –

• Most common mineral deficiency worldwide
• Anything that creates blood loss creates deficiency
  1. Menstruation in primates
  2. Gastrointestinal parasites or pathogens
• Newborn and young animals easily deficient (veal calves, lambs)
  1. Limited stores at birth (poor placental transfer)
  2. Milk levels are very low, no soil contact (soil is iron source)
  3. Rapid growth

Copper (Cu)

Functions –

• Red blood cell formation
  1. Required for iron absorption from small intestine
  2. Required for transfer of iron from cells to plasma; oxidation of iron from ferrous to ferric state
• Integral component of many enzymes (e.g., cytochrome oxidase)
• Bone development
  1. Structural integrity of collagen and elastin
• Hair and wool pigmentation
  1. Keratin formation in wool and hair
• Stored in most tissues, especially liver

Source –

• Shell fish
• Nuts
• potatoes
• Liver and kidney of any meat
• https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002419.htm

Deficiency –

• Vitamin C interferes with absorption
• Microcytic anemia
• Cardiac and vascular disorders
• Bone disorders (spontaneous fractures)
• Depigmentation of hair or wool
  1. Black sheep are sometimes kept as indicators of marginal Cu deficiency
• Loss of wool crimp (“steely” wool)
• Central nervous lesions with lack of muscular coordination

Zinc (Zn)

Functions –

• Component of metalloenzymes
  1. Includes DNA and RNA synthases
• Synthesis of skin keratin and collagen

Source –

• Legumes like chickpeas
• Seeds
• Eggs
• Meat is an excellent source of zinc
• https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/best-foods-high-in-zinc#TOC_TITLE_HDR_2

Deficiency –

• Impaired reproduction, delayed puberty
• Lesions of skin, disorders of hair, feathers, etc.
  1. Parakeratosis
• Growth retardation
• Low insulin and high ammonia in blood
• Low white blood cell count; susceptibility to infections
• Anorexia
• Night blindness

Manganese (Mn)

Functions –

• Cofactor for enzyme systems
• Synthesis of chondroitin sulfate in bone matrix

Source –

• Mussels, Nuts, soybeans and other legumes, rice, leafy vegetables, coffee, tea

Deficiency –

• Defective bone formation
  1. Perosis – slipped tendon * Poultry
  2. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Manganese-HealthProfessional/

Cobalt (Co)

Functions –

• Required only as a component of vitamin B12
  1. Ruminant animals require for microbes
• Vitamin B12 is an essential cofactor for enzymes involved in:
  1. Propionate metabolism
     1. methylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA
  2. DNA synthesis
  3. Bacterial synthesis of methionine

Source –

• fish
• nuts
• green leafy vegetables, such as broccoli and spinach
• cereals, such as oats
• https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/articles/cobalt

Deficiency –

• Mimics B12 deficiency in ruminants
  1. Anemia
  2. Emaciation

Iodine

Functions –

• Essential component of thyroid hormones
  1. Important for regulation of body temperature, basal metabolic rate, reproduction and growth

Source –

• Seafoods
• Milk/dairy products
• Iodized salt

Deficiency –

• The hypothalamus controls the production of thyroid hormones
  1. Monitors thyroid stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary
  2. When iodine deficiency occurs, thyroid hormone production decreases
  3. Body responds to this by secreting more thyroid stimulating hormone
  4. Eventually leads to the enlargement of the thyroid gland - simple goiter
• Decreased growth
• Goiter (less severe)
  1. Enlarged thyroid gland due to body’s attempt to increase thyroid hormone production
• Cretinism (more severe)
  1. Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancyserious problems in fetal development
     1. Increased incidence of stillbirths & abortions
     2. Cretinism (more severe)
• Certain foods from the cabbage family contain antithyroid substances, called goitrogens
  1. Over-consumption of these foods also may cause hypothyroidism
  2. Excessive intakes of iodine also may cause the enlargement of the thyroid gland

Selenium

Functions –

• Component of glutathione peroxidase
  1. Free radical scavenger that catalyzes removal of hydrogen peroxide from cell membranes
  2. Interrelated with vitamin E
     1. Can partially spare vitamin E (makes up for slight deficiencies)
• Improves killing ability of neutrophils
  1. Reduces the prevalence and severity of mastitis
• Conversion of T4 (thyroxine) to T3 (4x more active)

Source –

• Brazil nuts, seafoods, and organ meats
• https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Selenium-HealthProfessional/

Deficiency –

• Keshan disease is characterized by heart enlargement replacing the muscle tissue with fibrous tissues
• White muscle disease in lambs and calves
  1. Skeletal and cardiac myopathies
• Exudative diathesis (hemorrhagic disease) in chicks
• Liver necrosis
• Concentration in feeds is soil dependent
  1. Toxicity/deficiency related to geographic area

Molybdenum (Mo)

Functions –

• Component of many metalloenzymes
  1. Component of xanthine oxidase
     1. Nucleic acid (purine) metabolism

Source –

• Legumes, cereals, organ meats

Deficiency –

• Toxicity more common than deficiency
  1. Induces copper deficiency